GM Foods: A Moral Dilemma

Genetically modified (GM) food has come a very long way in terms of its technological advance and the stigma towards it. These stigmas are based on a lack of knowledge or myths which I wanted to explore in further depth. For example, in an article by the Economist in 2002 titled ‘Better dead than GM-fed?’, I was shocked to read how Zambia had refused American food aid into the country because of fears surrounding GM corn and soya (The Economist 2002). Levy Mwanawasa, president of Zambia, declared the aid as poison (ibid). There were uncertainties regarding the overall safety of these GM crops to human health, and fears of ‘contamination’ with other non-GM crops (ibid). Do these myths hold any weight? The phrase in the article’s title ‘better dead’ was very gripping as it demonstrates that sometimes difficult and unfavourable decisions have to made in order to achieve the lesser of two evils. But to reject food aid in a desperate situation where food supplies were expected to be depleted in Zambia within two weeks, is bizarre in my mind.

Throughout the course of this blog, I have demonstrated the various ways in which Africa is bracing itself for climatic variability and improving its adaptive capacity. GM foods can provide a way to increase crop yields and provide a greater outcome per unit of water. In other words, GM foods can be genetically engineered to more drought resistant and if implemented on a wide scale, can contribute to Africa’s long awaited green revolution (Schnurr 2015). GM foods can also be modified to be insect-resistant, herbicide-tolerant and more nutritious (Qaim 2014). For example, a new drought-resistant maize has been undergoing development and testing since 2008 by Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) (Schnurr 2015). Studies have revealed 20% increases in yield (ibid).

Myth 1: Health

The majority of studies have suggested that GM foods are indeed safe to eat, including a recent report by the National Academy of Sciences. But widespread public concern remains (National Geographic 2016). No matter how health-conscious you are nor how carefully you select your foods, you’re probably already consuming GM food without realising. Depending on where in the world you live, you will have different exposure to GM food in your diet.  For example, GM ingredients are found in 80% of packaged food in the USA (Fast Company 2014). This is contrasted to the UK which currently does not grow any GM crops (New Scientist 2015).

Myth 2: Contamination

One of the promises that you may have heard is that farms growing GM crops can be kept separate from other organic farms. Unfortunately, there have been many reported cases of contamination worldwide: 396 cases across 63 countries to be precise (Price and Cotter 2014). You can find more information about the specific cases here.

Myth 3: Seeds

The successful 20% increase in yields from the water efficient maize is distracting from one particular characteristic about GM food that I find distressing; farmers are forced to buy new GM seeds year on year because GM crops are designed to be sterile (Genetic Literacy Project 2015). How can this be morally correct, in a time where farmers in poverty cannot afford the seeds year on year? It seems wrong that companies would design their GM crops to be sterile. If they truly cared about poverty and food security, they would allow farmers to make a one off payment. The concept is formally named Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs), and is one of the most controversial biotechnologies in current debates surrounding GM crops (Lombardo 2014). The main reasons for this technology is to prevent unlicensed use of patented seeds. From an economic standpoint, research and development is a costly process and patents allow to compensate for this innovation (Genetic Literacy Project 2015).  Seed piracy, where GM crops are covertly planted in unregulated regions, can also be prevented by GURTs (ibid). This is extremely important because without regulation, the government will obtain inaccurate information regarding its use of GM foods and will not be ill equipped for any potential problems.

Even after explaining these justifications, the commercialisation of nature in this regard is still an upsetting one for me. GM foods have a big potential to provide resilience to climate change through drought-resistant crops, but we are disrupting the way of life for millions of people who depend on seed saving and the exchanging of seeds to save money and secure an income (Lombardo 2014).

List of References

Fast company (2014) ‘The Genetically Modified Food You Eat Every Day’ (WWW) (https://www.fastcompany.com/1676104/the-genetically-modified-food-you-eat-every-day; accessed 26/12/17).

Genetic Literacy Project (2015) ‘GMO patent controversy: Terminator genes, seed piracy and 'forcing' farmers to buy seeds’ (WWW) (https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2015/12/14/gmo-patent-controversy-terminator-genes-seed-piracy-forcing-farmers-buy-seeds/; accessed 26/12/17).

Lombardo, L. (2014) ‘Genetic use restriction technologies: a review’, Plant biotechnology journal, 12, 8, 995-1005.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Genetically engineered crops: experiences and prospects, London: National Academies Press.

National Geographic (2016) ‘Scientists Say GMO Foods Are Safe, Public Skepticism Remains’ (WWW) (http://theplate.nationalgeographic.com/2016/05/17/scientists-say-gmo-foods-are-safe-public-skepticism-remains/; accessed 26/12/17).

New Scientist (2015) ‘More than half of EU officially bans genetically modified crops’ (WWW) (https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28283-more-than-half-of-european-union-votes-to-ban-growing-gm-crops/; accessed 26/12/17).

Price, B. and J. Cotter (2014) ‘The GM Contamination Register: a review of recorded contamination incidents associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 1997–2013’, International Journal of Food Contamination, 1, 1, 5.

Qaim, M. (2014) ‘Genetically modified crops and development’, in V. Desai and R. Potter (eds.) The Companion to Development Studies: Third Edition, London: Routledge, Section 4.5.

Schnurr, M. A. (2015) ‘GMO 2.0: Genetically modified crops and the push for Africa’s green revolution’, Canadian Food Studies/La Revue canadienne des études sur l'alimentation, 2, 2, 201-208.

The Economist (2002) ‘Better dead than GM-fed?’ (WWW) (http://www.economist.com/node/1337197; accessed 26/12/17).

Groundwater in Rwanda

Can groundwater reserves in Africa be used sustainably?

This is the question that many are concerned about because even though Africa is sitting on a sea of untapped aquifers, excessive demand may limit groundwater recharge (Guardian 2016).

Figure 1: Groundwater availability in Africa (CGIAR 2016)

Figure 1 shows the distribution of groundwater which is available for irrigation, but the diagram on the right specifically shows Ground Water Irrigation Potential (GWIP). Availability of groundwater is one thing, but access to this is limited by factors which include: the drilling and pumping cost, which is determined by the depth of groundwater; the distance to market; access to electricity; and soil fertility which will determine its suitability for agriculture (CGIAR 2016). The distribution of groundwater does favour some countries more than others which means that unlocking the potential of groundwater is not applicable to the entire continent; countries in the equatorial band receive the greatest rainfall and therefore experience the greatest groundwater recharge, due to the effects of the moving ITCZ (Altchenko and Villholth 2015). Unfortunately, this means that countries in northern and southern Africa do not have access to renewable groundwater which means that alternative methods to improve food security must be sourced.

So having discussed the potential of groundwater, I wanted to investigate whether there have been any recent movements towards exploiting this resource. In recent news, solar powered irrigation systems have been used in Rwanda, which has doubled yields for farmers (New Times 2017). Smallholders have not been able to access groundwater reserves as they do not have the finances to afford pumping systems. The deeper the groundwater, the harder it is to access and the more the smallholders are priced out. In order to resolve this equity issue, solar powered systems are replacing diesel-fuelled pumping technology, reducing the environmental impact and cutting the cost (ibid). 

Figure 2: Gerard Munyeshuri Gatete in his 8-hectare farm in Nyagatare District, Rwanda (New Times 2017)

Gatete owns an 8 hectare farm in the Nyagatare District in Rwanda and is currently enjoying a doubling of his yields after the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) supported 75% of the financial cost towards the new Rwf22 million solar powered irrigation scheme (ibid). It has allowed him to farm all year round and has made him more adaptable to droughts (ibid). Just to put the finances into perspective, for one acre, farmers pay approximately $200 every month to run a diesel system to irrigate 1 acre of land. In contrast, farmers only need to pay $418 for the solar powered system which has a lifetime of 25 years, considering it is well maintained. This monetary gain is huge!

Is groundwater depletion inevitable?

Figure 3: Global groundwater depletion (IAH 2015)

As better and cheaper technologies become more accessible to farmers such as Gatete throughout Africa, the demand for groundwater will inevitably increase. Figure 3 shows the depletion of groundwater reserves worldwide and the exponential trend is very worrying. These resources need to be managed carefully and this leads to the question of who will take this responsibility? Groundwater salinisation is also an imminent threat which means that withdrawals need to be constantly monitored by specialists in order to review the impacts and vary withdrawals as necessary (IAH 2015).

However, this management takes on a unique transboundary dimension because aquifers cross international borders (World Bank 2017). This means that increased cooperation between countries is vital in order to share information on a central database to improve and contextualise management techniques (ibid). I am hopeful that with further research, groundwater can act as a safeguard during dry periods and work alongside small and large scale irrigation schemes. Groundwater depletion is not inevitable, so long as the correct management is in place.

List of References

Altchenko, Y. and K. G. Villholth (2015) ‘Mapping irrigation potential from renewable groundwater in Africa–a quantitative hydrological approach’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 19, 2, 1055-1067.

CGIAR (2016) ‘Is groundwater the key to increasing food security in Sub Saharan Africa?’ (WWW) (https://wle.cgiar.org/thrive/2016/04/23/groundwater-key-increasing-food-security-sub-saharan-africa; accessed 21/12/17).

Guardian (2016) ‘Africa droughts prompt calls to start pumping untapped groundwater’ (WWW) (https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/18/africa-drought-untapped-groundwater-aquifers-water-stress-ngo-partnership-ethiopia; accessed 21/12/17).

IAH (2015) Strategic Overview Series: Food Security & Groundwater, International Association of Hydrogeologists, Series 6.

New Times (2017) ‘Solar-powered irrigation sees farmers double their yield’ (WWW) (http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/223551/; accessed 21/12/17).

World Bank (2017) ‘Hidden and Forgotten: Managing Groundwater in Southern Africa’ (WWW) (http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/06/07/hidden-and-forgotten-managing-groundwater-in-southern-africa; accessed 21/12/17).

Let's Acknowledge Indigenous Knowledge

Figure 1: A recent comment on my blog post

I would like to thank Mari for this comment. I wanted to respond in detail, which is why I decided to embed this comment in this blog post. It also naturally follows on from my previous blog post about small scale irrigation (SSI) schemes.

From a post-colonial lens, one strength of SSI that stands out for me is how the design and implementation of the schemes can empower local farmers and utilise traditional water management systems. However, many SSI schemes in Ethiopia have failed to utilise this local knowledge which has led to conflict, along with disrupting existing community organisation (Carter 2016). Upsetting traditional community structures should be avoided when managing SSI (ibid). Thus, there should be an element of integration within existing structures and practices in order to fully realise the benefits of SSI. To answer Mari’s question, incorporating indigenous methods is an essential part of the consultation process when introducing SSI, and must not be completely disregarded. Having said this, a major weakness of SSI schemes is that it has a track record of being unsuccessful during dry seasons and less adaptable to droughts - a time when demand for irrigation peaks (Kloos and Legesse 2010). Furthermore, the consultation process is time-consuming; time is of the essence since climate change is intensifying precipitation variability throughout Africa at a rapid rate. Mari is absolutely correct – the nature of precipitation is uncertain and SSI may not hold all the solutions for this, unless droughts are properly planned for by installing high quality storage systems with reduced leakage. Also, efficiency needs to be enhanced and difficult decisions need to made as to which crop to prioritise during dry spells.  

In the blog post that Mari commented on, I talked about how my grandmother used various forms of indigenous knowledge, passed down from her parents, to manage the limited water supply that was available to her. I found a paper which overlapped with some of the things that my grandmother used to do back home in Sri Lanka.

Figure 2: My grandmother in action. My grandmother utilised indigenous knowledge whilst farming

Ulluwishewa (2014) describes how Terminalia Arjuna (kumbuk) trees were placed on the side of wells due its cooling effect, and once burnt, would be positioned at the bottom of wells to reduce the salinity of the water. In the clay pots that grandmother and mother used to use to collect water from wells, these were lined with the seeds of Stryclinos potatorum, also known as the clearing nut, which helped to clean the water (ibid). These actions may be perceived as outdated, but these are highly innovative ways of coping with difficult situations and utilising the resources that are available.

Similarly, indigenous knowledge has played a vital role in allowing populations across Africa to cope and adapt to the effects of climate change (Nyong 2007). For example, in the Sahel region, nomadic pastoralists often circulate between dry areas towards to the north and wetter areas in the South in order to reduce pressure on less fertile grazing land (ibid). They also kill weak livestock during droughts for food (ibid). Astonishingly, indigenous knowledge has also been important for climate change mitigation, through the use of agroforestry and forest management acting as a form of carbon sequestering (ibid). Agroforestry is a ‘rational land-use planning system that tries to find some balance in the raising of food crops and forests’ (ibid: 793). Local populations have thorough understanding of the properties of various plants and the performance of trees under various climatic environments which has proven invaluable to the success of forest management (ibid: 793)

To summarise, it is important to acknowledge the nuanced difference between mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation strategies will help to reduce climate change, which in turn will reduce the intensification of water scarcity throughout Africa. However, adaptation is accepting the terrifying fate of climate change and adjusting accordingly. Still, there is nothing wrong in adapting in order to save lives in a currently desperate situation. Indigenous knowledge must not be disregarded from climate change discussions as a whole, as it is a useful tool for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

List of References

Carter, R. and K. Danert (2006) FARM-Africa Ethiopia: planning for small-scale irrigation intervention, London, UK: Farm-Africa.

Kloos, H. and W. Legesse (2010) ‘Small scale irrigation and microdams’, in H. Kloos and W. Legesse (eds.) Water Resources and Management in Ethiopia: Implications for the Nile Basin, London: Cambria Press, 103-116.

Ulluwishewa, R. (1994) ‘Women's indigenous knowledge of water management in Sri Lanka’, Indigenous knowledge and development monitor, 2, 3, 17-19.

Nyong, A., F. Adesina and B. O. Elasha (2007) ‘The value of indigenous knowledge in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel’, Mitigation and Adaptation strategies for global Change, 12, 5, 787-797.