Small is the New Tall: Ethiopia's Utopia?

As I mentioned in my blog post titled ‘Too Late to Irrigate?’, there are different types of irrigation schemes which countries can adopt at various scales (Sullivan and Pittock 2014). This post will explore whether small scale irrigation schemes have the power to improve Ethiopia’s adaptive capacity.

Figure 1: Case study location of Ethiopia (Central Intelligence Agency 2017)

An Overview of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country located in the horn of Africa and is a fascinating country to focus on due to its unique transboundary water problems, sharing the Blue Nile with Egypt. For example, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which is currently around 60% complete, is creating anxiety for many Egyptian officials and has been a source of many political tensions in the area (Telegraph 2017). Another reason for focusing on Ethiopia is that only 42% of its population has access to clean water, a problem which is exacerbated in rural areas (The Water Project 2017). Millions are left to source water from contaminated water supplies which has been causing water-borne illnesses – the leading cause of death in young children in Ethiopia (Engage Now Africa 2017).  Climate change is a major threat to sub-Saharan African countries, including Ethiopia, as water scarcity is likely to intensify (Armede 2015).

Small is the New Tall

Small scale irrigation (SSI) schemes, defined as ‘irrigation, usually on small plots, in which farmers have the major controlling influence, and using a level of technology which the farmers can effectively operate and maintain’, have only received growing attention in Ethiopia since 2005 (Kloos and Legesse 2010: 104). Microdams have also been offered as an alternative to larger scale infrastructure projects as a part of the ‘development from below’ movement (ibid). It has benefits such as lower operation and construction costs, and can incorporate wider community views – an integral part of grassroots development (ibid).

Other schemes include (Smith et al. 2014):

• Watering can
• Treadle pumps
• Motorised pumps
• Solar pumps
• Shallow wells
• Canal and pipe conveyance systems
• Open gravity canal systems
• Sprinkler irrigation
• Drip irrigation
• River and spring diversion

I have included the list above to show how diverse SSI schemes can be. These schemes are easy to maintain and involves less enterprise capability (Tafesse 2003). From the list above, notice how the use of the watering can does not require specialised knowledge. Generally, there have been many studies showing increases in crop productivity and improvements in food security, especially at the household level (Kloos and Legesse 2010). For the livelihoods of smallholders across Ethiopia, SSI is deemed ‘crucial’ (Yami 2016: 132). An example is the SSI scheme implemented by FARM-Africa Ethiopia in Sero, Tigray, where gully plugging was used to raise the water level of the local river by seven meters (Carter 2006). Even though the stone gabions which blocked the gully (see Figure 2 and 3) had been washed away on a yearly basis, it contributed to soil build up at the back of the gabions which was then used to construct a pond nearby (ibid). The use of motorised pumps has been able to irrigate the land of 42 farmers who have grown crops such as maize, green pepper and papaya (ibid). Along with many other schemes in the Tigray region, this has contributed to increases in household income and a reduction in the dependence on food aid (Kloos and Legesse 2010).

Figure 2: Gully plugging (Newseq 2013)

Figure 3: Cross-section of a gully, using a Brushwood check dam (SSWM 2017)

Overcoming barriers

In contrast to the successful SSI example in Tigray and many other sites across Ethiopia, there have been many examples of less successful SSI throughout the country (Carter 2006). What makes SSI so inconsistent? The following is by no means an exhaustive list, but it provides an overview of the common problems faced during different stages of the implementation of SSI schemes (Kloos and Legesse 2010):

• Prone to seasonal drought
• The design of the scheme
• Weak management
• Seepage and overwatering
• Salinity build up
• Decline in soil fertility
• Increase in algal blooms (can reduce oxygen levels in water)

It is useful to consider whether these disadvantages are also applicable to larger scale irrigation schemes, many of which are, apart from the first one on the list. This is where one of the biggest differences lies, as dams can cater for changes in rainfall variability. Adding to this list, SSI can be seen to disturb pastoralists’ way of life, promoting a sedentary lifestyle which can be unsustainable in the long run (Carter 2006). There are also gendered impacts from SSI if labour intensive forms of irrigation places a higher labour burden on women (ibid). The impacts could also be positive if increases in household income allows women to have more disposable cash (ibid).

However, there was one particular finding in a paper which I read which caught my attention. It was found that in many failed SSI schemes, farmers had not been properly consulted (Carter 2006). If SSI schemes are supposed to be a form of ‘development from below’, then surely this is a substantial failing which needs to be addressed in the future? In many cases, it was found that ‘inadequate attention given to traditional water management systems among neighbouring villages has led to conflicts among farmers’ (Yami 2016: 137). This links into my next blog post where I will be discussing whether local and traditional water management practices can realistically offer a practical alternative to modern day techniques, especially in the complex environment of modern day challenges.

I hope I have displayed the sheer potential of small scale irrigation which offers a real alternative to larger scale infrastructure projects. However, it is frustrating to see that failures could have been prevented with better planning, design and consultation. These are mistakes that must be avoided in the future if Ethiopia, along with the rest of the continent, is to start strengthening its food security.

List of References

Amede, T. (2015) ‘Technical and institutional attributes constraining the performance of small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia’, Water resources and rural development, 6, 78-91.

Carter, R. and K. Danert (2006) FARM-Africa Ethiopia: planning for small-scale irrigation intervention, London, UK: Farm-Africa.

Engage Now Africa (2017) ‘Ethiopian Water Crisis: Know the Facts’ (WWW) (https://engagenowafrica.org/water-crisis-know-the-facts/; accessed 25/11/17).

Kloos, H. and W. Legesse (2010) ‘Small scale irrigation and microdams’, in H. Kloos and W. Legesse (eds.) Water Resources and Management in Ethiopia: Implications for the Nile Basin, London: Cambria Press, 103-116.

Smith, M., G. Muñoz and J. Sanz Alvarez (2014) Irrigation techniques for small-scale farmers: key practices for DRR implementers. FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Sullivan, A. and J. Pittock (2014) ‘Agricultural policies and irrigation in Africa. Water, food and agricultural sustainability in Southern Africa’, in J. Pittock, R. Q. Grafton and C. White (eds.) Water, food and agricultural sustainability in Southern Africa, Prahran: Tilde, 30-54.

Tafesse, M. (2003) Small-scale irrigation for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. CTA Working Document Number 8031. CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Telegraph (2017) ‘Death of the Nile: Egypt fears Ethiopian dam will cut into its water supply’ (WWW) (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/10/02/death-nile-egypt-fearsethiopian-dam-will-cut-water-supply/; accessed 25/11/17).

The Water Project (2017) ‘Water in Crisis – Ethiopia’ (WWW) (https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-ethiopia; accessed 25/11/17).

Yami, M. (2016) ‘Irrigation projects in Ethiopia: what can be done to enhance effectiveness under ‘challenging contexts’?’, International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 23, 2, 132-142.